---

name: mlops-workflows description: Comprehensive MLOps workflows for the complete ML lifecycle - experiment tracking, model registry, deployment patterns, monitoring, A/B testing, and production best practices with MLflow version: 1.0.0 category: Machine Learning Operations tags:

• mlops
• mlflow
• experiment-tracking
• model-registry
• deployment
• monitoring
• ml-lifecycle
• feature-stores
• ci-cd
• model-versioning
• a-b-testing
• production-ml prerequisites:
• Python 3.8+
• MLflow 2.0+
• scikit-learn
• Understanding of ML model training workflows

---

MLOps Workflows with MLflow

A comprehensive guide to production-grade MLOps workflows covering the complete machine learning lifecycle from experimentation to production deployment and monitoring.

Table of Contents

1. MLflow Components Overview
2. Experiment Tracking
3. Model Registry
4. Deployment Patterns
5. Monitoring and Observability
6. A/B Testing
7. Feature Stores
8. CI/CD for ML
9. Model Versioning
10. Production Best Practices

MLflow Components Overview

MLflow consists of four primary components for managing the ML lifecycle:

1. MLflow Tracking

Track experiments, parameters, metrics, and artifacts during model development.

Copyimport mlflow

# Set tracking URI
mlflow.set_tracking_uri("http://localhost:5000")

# Create or set experiment
mlflow.set_experiment("production-models")

# Start a run
with mlflow.start_run(run_name="baseline-model"):
    # Log parameters
    mlflow.log_param("learning_rate", 0.01)
    mlflow.log_param("batch_size", 32)

    # Log metrics
    mlflow.log_metric("accuracy", 0.95)
    mlflow.log_metric("loss", 0.05)

    # Log artifacts
    mlflow.log_artifact("model_plot.png")

2. MLflow Projects

Package ML code in a reusable, reproducible format.

Copy# MLproject file
name: my-ml-project
conda_env: conda.yaml

entry_points:
  main:
    parameters:
      learning_rate: {type: float, default: 0.01}
      epochs: {type: int, default: 100}
    command: "python train.py --lr {learning_rate} --epochs {epochs}"

  evaluate:
    parameters:
      model_uri: {type: string}
    command: "python evaluate.py --model-uri {model_uri}"

3. MLflow Models

Package models in a standard format for deployment across platforms.

Copyimport mlflow.sklearn
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier

# Train model
model = RandomForestClassifier()
model.fit(X_train, y_train)

# Log model with signature
from mlflow.models import infer_signature
signature = infer_signature(X_train, model.predict(X_train))

mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
    sk_model=model,
    name="random-forest-model",
    signature=signature,
    input_example=X_train[:5],
    registered_model_name="ProductionClassifier"
)

4. MLflow Registry

Centralized model store for managing model lifecycle and versioning.

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient

client = MlflowClient()

# Register model
model_uri = f"runs:/{run_id}/model"
registered_model = mlflow.register_model(
    model_uri=model_uri,
    name="CustomerChurnModel"
)

# Set model alias for deployment
client.set_registered_model_alias(
    name="CustomerChurnModel",
    alias="production",
    version=registered_model.version
)

Experiment Tracking

Basic Experiment Tracking

Copyimport mlflow
import mlflow.sklearn
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestRegressor
from sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error, r2_score
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

# Configure MLflow
mlflow.set_tracking_uri("http://localhost:5000")
mlflow.set_experiment("house-price-prediction")

# Load and prepare data
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2)

# Training with MLflow tracking
with mlflow.start_run(run_name="rf-baseline"):
    # Define parameters
    params = {
        "n_estimators": 100,
        "max_depth": 10,
        "min_samples_split": 5,
        "random_state": 42
    }

    # Train model
    model = RandomForestRegressor(**params)
    model.fit(X_train, y_train)

    # Evaluate
    predictions = model.predict(X_test)
    mse = mean_squared_error(y_test, predictions)
    r2 = r2_score(y_test, predictions)

    # Log everything
    mlflow.log_params(params)
    mlflow.log_metrics({
        "mse": mse,
        "r2": r2,
        "rmse": mse ** 0.5
    })

    # Log model
    mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
        sk_model=model,
        name="model",
        registered_model_name="HousePricePredictor"
    )

Autologging

MLflow provides automatic logging for popular frameworks:

Copyimport mlflow
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier

# Enable autologging for scikit-learn
mlflow.sklearn.autolog()

# Your training code - everything is logged automatically
with mlflow.start_run():
    model = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, max_depth=5)
    model.fit(X_train, y_train)
    predictions = model.predict(X_test)

Nested Runs for Hyperparameter Tuning

Copyimport mlflow
from sklearn.model_selection import GridSearchCV
from sklearn.ensemble import GradientBoostingClassifier

mlflow.set_experiment("hyperparameter-tuning")

# Parent run for the entire tuning process
with mlflow.start_run(run_name="grid-search-parent"):
    param_grid = {
        'learning_rate': [0.01, 0.1, 0.3],
        'n_estimators': [50, 100, 200],
        'max_depth': [3, 5, 7]
    }

    # Log parent parameters
    mlflow.log_param("tuning_method", "grid_search")
    mlflow.log_param("cv_folds", 5)

    best_score = 0
    best_params = None

    # Nested runs for each parameter combination
    for lr in param_grid['learning_rate']:
        for n_est in param_grid['n_estimators']:
            for depth in param_grid['max_depth']:
                with mlflow.start_run(nested=True, run_name=f"lr{lr}_n{n_est}_d{depth}"):
                    params = {
                        'learning_rate': lr,
                        'n_estimators': n_est,
                        'max_depth': depth
                    }

                    model = GradientBoostingClassifier(**params)
                    model.fit(X_train, y_train)
                    score = model.score(X_test, y_test)

                    mlflow.log_params(params)
                    mlflow.log_metric("accuracy", score)

                    if score > best_score:
                        best_score = score
                        best_params = params

    # Log best results in parent run
    mlflow.log_params({f"best_{k}": v for k, v in best_params.items()})
    mlflow.log_metric("best_accuracy", best_score)

Tracking Multiple Metrics Over Time

Copyimport mlflow
import numpy as np

with mlflow.start_run():
    # Log metrics at different steps (epochs)
    for epoch in range(100):
        train_loss = np.random.random() * (1 - epoch/100)
        val_loss = np.random.random() * (1 - epoch/100) + 0.1

        mlflow.log_metric("train_loss", train_loss, step=epoch)
        mlflow.log_metric("val_loss", val_loss, step=epoch)
        mlflow.log_metric("learning_rate", 0.01 * (0.95 ** epoch), step=epoch)

Logging Artifacts

Copyimport mlflow
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import pandas as pd

with mlflow.start_run():
    # Log plot
    plt.figure(figsize=(10, 6))
    plt.plot(history['loss'], label='Training Loss')
    plt.plot(history['val_loss'], label='Validation Loss')
    plt.legend()
    plt.savefig("loss_curve.png")
    mlflow.log_artifact("loss_curve.png")

    # Log dataframe as CSV
    feature_importance = pd.DataFrame({
        'feature': feature_names,
        'importance': model.feature_importances_
    })
    feature_importance.to_csv("feature_importance.csv", index=False)
    mlflow.log_artifact("feature_importance.csv")

    # Log entire directory
    mlflow.log_artifacts("output_dir/", artifact_path="outputs")

Model Registry

Registering Models

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient
import mlflow.sklearn

client = MlflowClient()

# Method 1: Register during model logging
with mlflow.start_run():
    mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
        sk_model=model,
        name="model",
        registered_model_name="CustomerSegmentationModel"
    )

# Method 2: Register an existing model
run_id = "abc123"
model_uri = f"runs:/{run_id}/model"
registered_model = mlflow.register_model(
    model_uri=model_uri,
    name="CustomerSegmentationModel"
)

Model Versioning and Aliases

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient

client = MlflowClient()

# Create registered model
client.create_registered_model(
    name="FraudDetectionModel",
    description="ML model for detecting fraudulent transactions"
)

# Register version 1
model_uri_v1 = "runs:/run1/model"
mv1 = client.create_model_version(
    name="FraudDetectionModel",
    source=model_uri_v1,
    run_id="run1"
)

# Set aliases for deployment management
client.set_registered_model_alias(
    name="FraudDetectionModel",
    alias="champion",  # Production model
    version="1"
)

client.set_registered_model_alias(
    name="FraudDetectionModel",
    alias="challenger",  # A/B testing model
    version="2"
)

# Load model by alias
champion_model = mlflow.sklearn.load_model("models:/FraudDetectionModel@champion")
challenger_model = mlflow.sklearn.load_model("models:/FraudDetectionModel@challenger")

Model Lifecycle Management

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient
from mlflow.entities import LoggedModelStatus

client = MlflowClient()

# Initialize model in PENDING state
model = mlflow.initialize_logged_model(
    name="neural_network_classifier",
    model_type="neural_network",
    tags={"architecture": "resnet", "dataset": "imagenet"}
)

try:
    # Training and validation
    train_model()
    validate_model()

    # Log model artifacts
    mlflow.pytorch.log_model(
        pytorch_model=model_instance,
        name="model",
        model_id=model.model_id
    )

    # Mark as ready
    mlflow.finalize_logged_model(model.model_id, LoggedModelStatus.READY)

except Exception as e:
    # Mark as failed
    mlflow.finalize_logged_model(model.model_id, LoggedModelStatus.FAILED)
    raise

Model Metadata and Tags

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient

client = MlflowClient()

# Set registered model tags
client.set_registered_model_tag(
    name="RecommendationModel",
    key="task",
    value="collaborative_filtering"
)

client.set_registered_model_tag(
    name="RecommendationModel",
    key="business_unit",
    value="ecommerce"
)

# Set model version tags
client.set_model_version_tag(
    name="RecommendationModel",
    version="3",
    key="validation_status",
    value="approved"
)

client.set_model_version_tag(
    name="RecommendationModel",
    version="3",
    key="approval_date",
    value="2024-01-15"
)

# Update model description
client.update_registered_model(
    name="RecommendationModel",
    description="Collaborative filtering model for product recommendations. Trained on user-item interaction data."
)

Searching and Filtering Models

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient

client = MlflowClient()

# Search registered models
models = client.search_registered_models(
    filter_string="name LIKE 'Production%'",
    max_results=10
)

# Search model versions
versions = client.search_model_versions(
    filter_string="name='CustomerChurnModel' AND tags.validation_status='approved'"
)

# Get specific model version
model_version = client.get_model_version(
    name="CustomerChurnModel",
    version="5"
)

# Get model by alias
champion = client.get_model_version_by_alias(
    name="CustomerChurnModel",
    alias="champion"
)

Deployment Patterns

Local Model Serving

Copyimport mlflow.pyfunc

# Load model
model = mlflow.pyfunc.load_model("models:/CustomerChurnModel@production")

# Make predictions
predictions = model.predict(data)

REST API Deployment

Copy# Serve model as REST API
mlflow models serve \
    --model-uri models:/CustomerChurnModel@production \
    --host 0.0.0.0 \
    --port 5001 \
    --workers 4

Copy# Client code to call the REST API
import requests
import json

url = "http://localhost:5001/invocations"
headers = {"Content-Type": "application/json"}

data = {
    "dataframe_split": {
        "columns": ["feature1", "feature2", "feature3"],
        "data": [[1.0, 2.0, 3.0], [4.0, 5.0, 6.0]]
    }
}

response = requests.post(url, headers=headers, data=json.dumps(data))
predictions = response.json()

Docker Deployment

Copy# Build Docker image
mlflow models build-docker \
    --model-uri models:/CustomerChurnModel@production \
    --name customer-churn-model

# Run container
docker run -p 8080:8080 customer-churn-model

AWS SageMaker Deployment

Copyimport mlflow.sagemaker

# Deploy to SageMaker
mlflow.sagemaker.deploy(
    app_name="customer-churn-predictor",
    model_uri="models:/CustomerChurnModel@production",
    region_name="us-east-1",
    mode="create",
    execution_role_arn="arn:aws:iam::123456789:role/SageMakerRole",
    instance_type="ml.m5.xlarge",
    instance_count=2
)

Azure ML Deployment

Copyimport mlflow.azureml
from azureml.core import Workspace
from azureml.core.webservice import AciWebservice

# Configure workspace
ws = Workspace.from_config()

# Deploy to Azure Container Instance
aci_config = AciWebservice.deploy_configuration(
    cpu_cores=2,
    memory_gb=4,
    tags={"model": "churn-predictor"},
    description="Customer churn prediction model"
)

mlflow.azureml.deploy(
    model_uri="models:/CustomerChurnModel@production",
    workspace=ws,
    deployment_config=aci_config,
    service_name="churn-predictor-service"
)

GCP Vertex AI Deployment

Copyfrom google.cloud import aiplatform
import mlflow

# Initialize Vertex AI
aiplatform.init(project="my-project", location="us-central1")

# Deploy to Vertex AI
model = mlflow.register_model(
    model_uri="runs:/run-id/model",
    name="CustomerChurnModel"
)

# Create Vertex AI endpoint
endpoint = aiplatform.Endpoint.create(display_name="churn-prediction-endpoint")

# Deploy model
endpoint.deploy(
    model=model,
    deployed_model_display_name="churn-v1",
    machine_type="n1-standard-4",
    min_replica_count=1,
    max_replica_count=5
)

Batch Inference

Copyimport mlflow
import pandas as pd

# Load model
model = mlflow.pyfunc.load_model("models:/CustomerChurnModel@production")

# Load batch data
batch_data = pd.read_csv("customer_batch.csv")

# Process in chunks
chunk_size = 1000
predictions = []

for i in range(0, len(batch_data), chunk_size):
    chunk = batch_data[i:i+chunk_size]
    chunk_predictions = model.predict(chunk)
    predictions.extend(chunk_predictions)

# Save results
results = pd.DataFrame({
    'customer_id': batch_data['customer_id'],
    'churn_probability': predictions
})
results.to_csv("churn_predictions.csv", index=False)

Monitoring and Observability

Model Performance Monitoring

Copyimport mlflow
from datetime import datetime
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, precision_score, recall_score

class ModelMonitor:
    def __init__(self, model_name, tracking_uri):
        self.model_name = model_name
        mlflow.set_tracking_uri(tracking_uri)
        mlflow.set_experiment(f"{model_name}-monitoring")

    def log_prediction_metrics(self, y_true, y_pred, timestamp=None):
        """Log prediction metrics for monitoring"""
        if timestamp is None:
            timestamp = datetime.now()

        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"monitoring-{timestamp}"):
            # Calculate metrics
            metrics = {
                "accuracy": accuracy_score(y_true, y_pred),
                "precision": precision_score(y_true, y_pred, average='weighted'),
                "recall": recall_score(y_true, y_pred, average='weighted')
            }

            # Log metrics
            mlflow.log_metrics(metrics)
            mlflow.log_param("timestamp", timestamp.isoformat())
            mlflow.log_param("num_predictions", len(y_pred))

            # Check for drift
            if metrics["accuracy"] < 0.85:
                mlflow.set_tag("alert", "performance_degradation")

    def log_data_drift(self, reference_data, current_data):
        """Monitor for data drift"""
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name="data-drift-check"):
            # Calculate distribution statistics
            for col in reference_data.columns:
                ref_mean = reference_data[col].mean()
                curr_mean = current_data[col].mean()
                drift_percent = abs((curr_mean - ref_mean) / ref_mean) * 100

                mlflow.log_metric(f"{col}_drift_percent", drift_percent)

                if drift_percent > 20:
                    mlflow.set_tag(f"{col}_drift_alert", "high")

# Usage
monitor = ModelMonitor("CustomerChurnModel", "http://localhost:5000")
monitor.log_prediction_metrics(y_true, y_pred)

Prediction Logging

Copyimport mlflow
from datetime import datetime
import json

def log_predictions(model_name, inputs, predictions, metadata=None):
    """Log predictions for auditing and monitoring"""
    mlflow.set_experiment(f"{model_name}-predictions")

    with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"prediction-{datetime.now().isoformat()}"):
        # Log prediction data
        mlflow.log_param("num_predictions", len(predictions))
        mlflow.log_param("model_name", model_name)

        # Log metadata
        if metadata:
            mlflow.log_params(metadata)

        # Log input/output samples
        sample_data = {
            "inputs": inputs[:5].tolist() if hasattr(inputs, 'tolist') else inputs[:5],
            "predictions": predictions[:5].tolist() if hasattr(predictions, 'tolist') else predictions[:5]
        }

        with open("prediction_sample.json", "w") as f:
            json.dump(sample_data, f)
        mlflow.log_artifact("prediction_sample.json")

Model Explainability Tracking

Copyimport mlflow
import shap
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

def log_model_explanations(model, X_test, feature_names):
    """Log SHAP explanations for model interpretability"""
    with mlflow.start_run():
        # Calculate SHAP values
        explainer = shap.TreeExplainer(model)
        shap_values = explainer.shap_values(X_test)

        # Create summary plot
        plt.figure()
        shap.summary_plot(shap_values, X_test, feature_names=feature_names, show=False)
        plt.savefig("shap_summary.png", bbox_inches='tight')
        mlflow.log_artifact("shap_summary.png")

        # Log feature importance
        feature_importance = dict(zip(feature_names, model.feature_importances_))
        mlflow.log_params({f"importance_{k}": v for k, v in feature_importance.items()})

A/B Testing

A/B Test Framework

Copyimport mlflow
import numpy as np
from datetime import datetime

class ABTestFramework:
    def __init__(self, model_a_uri, model_b_uri, traffic_split=0.5):
        self.model_a = mlflow.pyfunc.load_model(model_a_uri)
        self.model_b = mlflow.pyfunc.load_model(model_b_uri)
        self.traffic_split = traffic_split

        mlflow.set_experiment("ab-testing")

    def predict(self, data, user_id=None):
        """Route traffic between models and log results"""
        # Determine which model to use
        if user_id is None or hash(user_id) % 100 < self.traffic_split * 100:
            model_name = "model_a"
            prediction = self.model_a.predict(data)
        else:
            model_name = "model_b"
            prediction = self.model_b.predict(data)

        # Log the prediction
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"ab-test-{datetime.now().isoformat()}"):
            mlflow.log_param("model_variant", model_name)
            mlflow.log_param("user_id", user_id)
            mlflow.log_metric("prediction", float(prediction[0]))

        return prediction

    def evaluate_test(self, results_a, results_b):
        """Evaluate A/B test results"""
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name="ab-test-evaluation"):
            # Calculate metrics for both variants
            metrics_a = {
                "mean_a": np.mean(results_a),
                "std_a": np.std(results_a),
                "count_a": len(results_a)
            }

            metrics_b = {
                "mean_b": np.mean(results_b),
                "std_b": np.std(results_b),
                "count_b": len(results_b)
            }

            # Statistical test
            from scipy import stats
            t_stat, p_value = stats.ttest_ind(results_a, results_b)

            mlflow.log_metrics({**metrics_a, **metrics_b})
            mlflow.log_metric("t_statistic", t_stat)
            mlflow.log_metric("p_value", p_value)

            # Determine winner
            if p_value < 0.05:
                winner = "model_a" if np.mean(results_a) > np.mean(results_b) else "model_b"
                mlflow.set_tag("winner", winner)
                mlflow.set_tag("significant", "yes")
            else:
                mlflow.set_tag("significant", "no")

# Usage
ab_test = ABTestFramework(
    model_a_uri="models:/CustomerChurnModel@champion",
    model_b_uri="models:/CustomerChurnModel@challenger",
    traffic_split=0.5
)

prediction = ab_test.predict(customer_data, user_id="user123")

Multi-Armed Bandit Testing

Copyimport mlflow
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import beta

class MultiArmedBandit:
    def __init__(self, model_uris):
        self.models = [mlflow.pyfunc.load_model(uri) for uri in model_uris]
        self.successes = [1] * len(model_uris)  # Prior
        self.failures = [1] * len(model_uris)   # Prior

        mlflow.set_experiment("mab-testing")

    def select_model(self):
        """Thompson sampling to select model"""
        samples = [
            np.random.beta(s, f)
            for s, f in zip(self.successes, self.failures)
        ]
        return np.argmax(samples)

    def predict_and_update(self, data, actual_outcome=None):
        """Make prediction and update model performance"""
        model_idx = self.select_model()
        prediction = self.models[model_idx].predict(data)

        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"mab-prediction"):
            mlflow.log_param("selected_model", model_idx)
            mlflow.log_metric("prediction", float(prediction[0]))

            # Update based on outcome
            if actual_outcome is not None:
                if actual_outcome == prediction[0]:
                    self.successes[model_idx] += 1
                else:
                    self.failures[model_idx] += 1

                mlflow.log_metric("success_rate",
                    self.successes[model_idx] / (self.successes[model_idx] + self.failures[model_idx]))

        return prediction

Feature Stores

Feature Store Integration

Copyimport mlflow
from datetime import datetime
import pandas as pd

class FeatureStore:
    def __init__(self, storage_path):
        self.storage_path = storage_path
        mlflow.set_experiment("feature-store")

    def create_feature_set(self, name, df, description=None):
        """Create and version a feature set"""
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"feature-set-{name}"):
            # Save features
            feature_path = f"{self.storage_path}/{name}_{datetime.now().isoformat()}.parquet"
            df.to_parquet(feature_path)

            # Log metadata
            mlflow.log_param("feature_set_name", name)
            mlflow.log_param("num_features", len(df.columns))
            mlflow.log_param("num_samples", len(df))
            mlflow.log_param("description", description or "")

            # Log feature statistics
            stats = df.describe().to_dict()
            mlflow.log_dict(stats, "feature_stats.json")

            # Log artifact
            mlflow.log_artifact(feature_path)

            return feature_path

    def get_features(self, run_id):
        """Retrieve feature set by run ID"""
        client = mlflow.MlflowClient()
        run = client.get_run(run_id)
        artifact_uri = run.info.artifact_uri

        # Download and load features
        local_path = mlflow.artifacts.download_artifacts(artifact_uri)
        df = pd.read_parquet(local_path)

        return df

# Usage
store = FeatureStore("s3://my-bucket/features")

# Create features
features = pd.DataFrame({
    'customer_id': range(1000),
    'lifetime_value': np.random.rand(1000) * 1000,
    'avg_purchase': np.random.rand(1000) * 100,
    'days_since_last_purchase': np.random.randint(0, 365, 1000)
})

feature_path = store.create_feature_set(
    name="customer_features",
    df=features,
    description="Customer behavioral features for churn prediction"
)

Feature Engineering Pipeline

Copyimport mlflow
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
from sklearn.decomposition import PCA

def feature_engineering_pipeline(data, run_name="feature-engineering"):
    """Log feature engineering steps"""
    with mlflow.start_run(run_name=run_name):
        # Original features
        mlflow.log_param("original_features", len(data.columns))

        # Scaling
        scaler = StandardScaler()
        scaled_data = scaler.fit_transform(data)
        mlflow.sklearn.log_model(scaler, "scaler")

        # Dimensionality reduction
        pca = PCA(n_components=0.95)
        transformed_data = pca.fit_transform(scaled_data)
        mlflow.sklearn.log_model(pca, "pca")

        mlflow.log_param("final_features", transformed_data.shape[1])
        mlflow.log_metric("variance_explained", pca.explained_variance_ratio_.sum())

        return transformed_data

# Usage
transformed_features = feature_engineering_pipeline(raw_data)

CI/CD for ML

Training Pipeline

Copyimport mlflow
from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier

def training_pipeline(data_path, model_params, validation_threshold=0.85):
    """Automated training pipeline with validation gates"""

    mlflow.set_experiment("production-training-pipeline")

    with mlflow.start_run(run_name="pipeline-run"):
        # Load data
        data = pd.read_csv(data_path)
        X = data.drop('target', axis=1)
        y = data['target']

        # Log data version
        mlflow.log_param("data_version", data_path.split('/')[-1])
        mlflow.log_param("data_samples", len(data))

        # Train model
        model = RandomForestClassifier(**model_params)
        model.fit(X, y)

        # Cross-validation
        cv_scores = cross_val_score(model, X, y, cv=5)
        mean_cv_score = cv_scores.mean()

        mlflow.log_params(model_params)
        mlflow.log_metric("cv_score_mean", mean_cv_score)
        mlflow.log_metric("cv_score_std", cv_scores.std())

        # Validation gate
        if mean_cv_score >= validation_threshold:
            # Log model
            mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
                sk_model=model,
                name="model",
                registered_model_name="ProductionModel"
            )
            mlflow.set_tag("status", "passed")
            return True
        else:
            mlflow.set_tag("status", "failed")
            mlflow.set_tag("failure_reason", "below_threshold")
            return False

# Usage in CI/CD
success = training_pipeline(
    data_path="data/training_data_v2.csv",
    model_params={'n_estimators': 100, 'max_depth': 10},
    validation_threshold=0.85
)

if not success:
    raise ValueError("Model did not meet validation criteria")

Model Promotion Pipeline

Copyfrom mlflow import MlflowClient

def promote_model_to_production(model_name, version, validation_results):
    """Promote model through stages with validation"""

    client = MlflowClient()

    # Validation checks
    required_metrics = ['accuracy', 'precision', 'recall']
    for metric in required_metrics:
        if metric not in validation_results:
            raise ValueError(f"Missing required metric: {metric}")
        if validation_results[metric] < 0.8:
            raise ValueError(f"{metric} below threshold: {validation_results[metric]}")

    # Set tags
    for metric, value in validation_results.items():
        client.set_model_version_tag(
            name=model_name,
            version=version,
            key=f"validation_{metric}",
            value=str(value)
        )

    # Promote to production
    client.set_registered_model_alias(
        name=model_name,
        alias="production",
        version=version
    )

    # Tag with promotion metadata
    client.set_model_version_tag(
        name=model_name,
        version=version,
        key="promoted_at",
        value=datetime.now().isoformat()
    )

    return True

# Usage
validation_results = {
    'accuracy': 0.92,
    'precision': 0.89,
    'recall': 0.91
}

promote_model_to_production(
    model_name="FraudDetectionModel",
    version="5",
    validation_results=validation_results
)

Automated Model Retraining

Copyimport mlflow
import schedule
import time

class AutomatedRetrainer:
    def __init__(self, model_name, data_source, schedule_interval="daily"):
        self.model_name = model_name
        self.data_source = data_source
        self.schedule_interval = schedule_interval

        mlflow.set_experiment(f"{model_name}-retraining")

    def retrain(self):
        """Retrain model with latest data"""
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"retrain-{datetime.now().isoformat()}"):
            # Load latest data
            data = self.load_latest_data()

            # Get current production model
            client = MlflowClient()
            current_model = client.get_model_version_by_alias(
                self.model_name, "production"
            )

            # Load and evaluate current model
            current_model_obj = mlflow.sklearn.load_model(
                f"models:/{self.model_name}@production"
            )
            current_score = current_model_obj.score(X_test, y_test)

            mlflow.log_metric("current_production_score", current_score)

            # Train new model
            new_model = self.train_model(data)
            new_score = new_model.score(X_test, y_test)

            mlflow.log_metric("new_model_score", new_score)

            # Compare and promote if better
            if new_score > current_score:
                mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
                    sk_model=new_model,
                    name="model",
                    registered_model_name=self.model_name
                )
                mlflow.set_tag("status", "promoted")
            else:
                mlflow.set_tag("status", "not_promoted")

    def start_scheduled_retraining(self):
        """Start scheduled retraining"""
        if self.schedule_interval == "daily":
            schedule.every().day.at("02:00").do(self.retrain)
        elif self.schedule_interval == "weekly":
            schedule.every().monday.at("02:00").do(self.retrain)

        while True:
            schedule.run_pending()
            time.sleep(3600)

# Usage
retrainer = AutomatedRetrainer(
    model_name="CustomerChurnModel",
    data_source="s3://bucket/data",
    schedule_interval="daily"
)

Production Best Practices

Model Signatures

Copyfrom mlflow.models import infer_signature, ModelSignature
from mlflow.types import Schema, ColSpec
import mlflow.sklearn
import numpy as np

# Method 1: Infer signature from data
signature = infer_signature(X_train, model.predict(X_train))

# Method 2: Define explicit signature
input_schema = Schema([
    ColSpec("double", "age"),
    ColSpec("double", "income"),
    ColSpec("string", "customer_segment")
])

output_schema = Schema([ColSpec("double")])

signature = ModelSignature(inputs=input_schema, outputs=output_schema)

# Log model with signature
mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
    sk_model=model,
    name="model",
    signature=signature,
    input_example=X_train[:5]
)

Model Validation Framework

Copyimport mlflow
from sklearn.metrics import classification_report
import json

class ModelValidator:
    def __init__(self, thresholds):
        self.thresholds = thresholds

    def validate(self, model, X_test, y_test):
        """Comprehensive model validation"""
        results = {}

        with mlflow.start_run(run_name="model-validation"):
            # Performance metrics
            predictions = model.predict(X_test)
            report = classification_report(y_test, predictions, output_dict=True)

            # Check thresholds
            passed = True
            for metric, threshold in self.thresholds.items():
                value = report['weighted avg'][metric]
                results[metric] = value
                mlflow.log_metric(metric, value)

                if value < threshold:
                    passed = False
                    mlflow.set_tag(f"{metric}_failed", "true")

            # Detailed report
            with open("validation_report.json", "w") as f:
                json.dump(report, f, indent=2)
            mlflow.log_artifact("validation_report.json")

            mlflow.set_tag("validation_passed", str(passed))

            return passed, results

# Usage
validator = ModelValidator(thresholds={
    'precision': 0.85,
    'recall': 0.80,
    'f1-score': 0.82
})

passed, results = validator.validate(model, X_test, y_test)

Error Handling and Logging

Copyimport mlflow
import logging
from functools import wraps

def mlflow_error_handler(func):
    """Decorator for MLflow error handling"""
    @wraps(func)
    def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"{func.__name__}"):
            try:
                result = func(*args, **kwargs)
                mlflow.set_tag("status", "success")
                return result

            except Exception as e:
                # Log error
                mlflow.set_tag("status", "failed")
                mlflow.set_tag("error_type", type(e).__name__)
                mlflow.set_tag("error_message", str(e))

                # Log traceback
                import traceback
                tb = traceback.format_exc()
                with open("error_traceback.txt", "w") as f:
                    f.write(tb)
                mlflow.log_artifact("error_traceback.txt")

                logging.error(f"Error in {func.__name__}: {str(e)}")
                raise

    return wrapper

@mlflow_error_handler
def train_model_with_error_handling(data):
    # Training code
    model = RandomForestClassifier()
    model.fit(X, y)
    return model

Model Performance Baseline

Copyimport mlflow
from sklearn.dummy import DummyClassifier

def establish_baseline(X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test):
    """Establish baseline model performance"""
    mlflow.set_experiment("baseline-models")

    strategies = ['most_frequent', 'stratified', 'uniform']

    for strategy in strategies:
        with mlflow.start_run(run_name=f"baseline-{strategy}"):
            baseline = DummyClassifier(strategy=strategy)
            baseline.fit(X_train, y_train)
            score = baseline.score(X_test, y_test)

            mlflow.log_param("strategy", strategy)
            mlflow.log_metric("accuracy", score)

            mlflow.sklearn.log_model(
                sk_model=baseline,
                name="baseline_model",
                registered_model_name=f"Baseline-{strategy}"
            )

# Usage
establish_baseline(X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test)

Summary

This comprehensive guide covers production-grade MLOps workflows using MLflow:

1. Experiment Tracking: Log parameters, metrics, and artifacts systematically
2. Model Registry: Centralized model versioning and lifecycle management
3. Deployment: Multiple deployment patterns for various platforms
4. Monitoring: Track model performance and data drift in production
5. A/B Testing: Compare model variants in production
6. Feature Stores: Version and manage feature engineering
7. CI/CD: Automated training, validation, and promotion pipelines
8. Best Practices: Signatures, validation, error handling, and baselines

These patterns enable teams to build robust, scalable ML systems from experimentation through production deployment and monitoring.